Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology - Articles in Press

Isolation and expansion of functionally-competent cardiac progenitor cells directly from heart biopsies - Accepted Manuscript

2010-03-08

Abstract: The adult heart contains reservoirs of progenitor cells that express embryonic and stem cell-related antigens. While these antigenically-purified cells are promising candidates for autologous cell therapy, clinical application is hampered by their limited abundance and tedious isolation methods. Methods that involve an intermediate cardiosphere-forming step have proven successful and are being tested clinically, but it is unclear whether the cardiosphere step is necessary. Accordingly, we investigated the molecular profile and functional benefit of cells that spontaneously emigrate from cardiac tissue in primary culture. Adult Wistar-Kyoto rat hearts were minced, digested and cultured as separate anatomical regions. Loosely-adherent cells that surround the plated tissue were harvested weekly for a total of five harvests. Genetic lineage tracing demonstrated that a small proportion of the direct outgrowth from cardiac samples originates from myocardial cells. This outgrowth contains sub-populations of cells expressing embryonic (SSEA-1) and stem cell-related antigens (c-Kit, abcg2) that varied with time in culture but not with the cardiac chamber of origin. This direct outgrowth, and its expanded progeny, underwent marked in vitro angiogenic/cardiogenic differentiation and cytokine secretion (IGF-1, VGEF). In vivo effects included long-term functional benefits as gauged by MRI following cell injection in a rat model of myocardial infarction. Outgrowth cells afforded equivalent functional benefits to cardiosphere-derived cells, which require more processing steps to manufacture. These results provide the basis for a simplified and efficient process to generate autologous cardiac progenitor cells (and mesenchymal supporting cells) to augment clinically-relevant approaches for myocardial repair.

Cardiomyocyte toll-like receptor 4 is involved in heart dysfunction following septic shock or myocardial ischemia - Accepted Manuscript

2010-03-08

Abstract: Toll like receptors are expressed in immune cells and cardiac muscle. We examined whether the cardiac Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4) is involved in the acute myocardial dysfunction caused by septic shock and myocardial ischemia (MI). We used wild type mice (WT), TLR4 deficient (TLR4-ko) mice and chimeras that underwent myeloablative bone marrow transplantation to dissociate between TLR4 expression in the heart (TLR4-ko/ WT) and the immuno-hematopoietic system (WT/TLR4-ko). Mice were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (septic shock model) or subjected to coronary artery ligation (MI model) and tested in vivo and ex vivo, for function, histopathology proinflammatory cytokine and TLR4 expression. WT mice challenged with LPS or MI displayed reduced cardiac function, increased myocardial levels of IL-1β and TNF-α and upregulation of mRNA encoding TLR4 prior to myocardial leukocyte infiltration. TLR4 deficient mice sustained significantly smaller infarctions as compared to control mice at comparable areas at risk. The cardiac function of TLR4-ko mice was not affected by LPS and demonstrated reduced suppression by MI compared to WT. Chimeras deficient in myocardial TLR4 were resistant to suppression induced by LPS and the heart function was less depressed, compared to the TLR4-ko, following MI in the acute phase (4hours). In contrast, hearts of chimeras deficient in immune-hematopoietic TLR4 expression were suppressed both by LPS and MI, exhibiting increased myocardial cytokine levels, similar to WT mice. We concluded that cardiac function of TLR4-ko mice and chimeric mice expressing TLR4 in the immune-hematopoietic system, but not in the heart, revealed resistance to LPS and reduced cardiac depression following MI, suggesting that TLR4 expressed by the cardiomyocytes themselves plays a key role in this acute phenomenon.

Adiponectin deficiency exacerbates cardiac dysfunction following pressure overload through disruption of an AMPK-dependent angiogenic response - Accepted Manuscript

2010-03-08

Abstract: Background: Although increasing evidence indicates that an adipokine adiponectin exerts protective actions on heart, its effects on coronary angiogenesis following pressure overload have not been examined previously. Because disruption of angiogenesis during heart growth leads to contractile dysfunction and heart failure, we hypothesized that adiponectin modulates cardiac remodeling in response to pressure overload through its ability to regulate adaptive angiogenesis.Methods and Results: Adiponectin-knockout (APN-KO) and wild-type (WT) mice were subjected to pressure overload caused by transverse aortic constriction (TAC). APN-KO mice exhibited greater cardiac hypertrophy, pulmonary congestion, left ventricular (LV) interstitial fibrosis and LV systolic dysfunction after TAC surgery compared with WT mice. APN-KO mice also displayed reduced capillary density in the myocardium after TAC, which was accompanied by a significant decrease in expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Inhibition of AMPK in WT mice resulted in aggravated LV systolic function, attenuated myocardial capillary density and decreased VEGF expression in response to TAC. The adverse effects of AMPK inhibition on cardiac function and angiogenic response following TAC were diminished in APN-KO mice relative to WT mice. Moreover, adenovirus-mediated VEGF delivery reversed the TAC-induced deficiencies in cardiac microvessel formation and ventricular function observed in the APN-KO mice. In cultured cardiac myocytes, adiponectin treatment stimulated VEGF production, which was inhibited by inactivation of AMPK signaling pathway.Conclusions: Adiponectin deficiency can accelerate the transition from cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure during pressure overload through disruption of AMPK-dependent angiogenic regulatory axis.

Heparan sulfate Ndst1 regulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, vessel size and vascular remodeling - Accepted Manuscript

2010-03-08

Calpain translocation and activation as pharmacological targets during myocardial ischemia/reperfusion - Accepted Manuscript

2010-03-08

Abstract: Calpains contribute to reperfusion-induced myocardial cell death. However, it remains controversial whether its activation occurs during ischemia or reperfusion. We investigated the regulation and time-course of calpain activation secondary to transient ischemia and the efficacy of its inhibition at reperfusion as a therapeutic strategy to limit infarct size. In isolated rat hearts (Sprague-Dawley), ischemia induced a time-dependent translocation of m-calpain to the membrane that was not associated with calpain activation as assessed by proteolysis of its substrate α-fodrin. Translocation of calpain was dependent on Ca2+ entry through reverse mode Na+/Ca2+-exchange and was independent of acidosis. Calpain activation occurred during reperfusion, but only after intracellular pH (pHi) normalization, and was not prevented by inhibiting its translocation during ischemia with methyl-β-cyclodextrin. The intravenous infusion of MDL-28170 in an in vivo rat model with transient coronary occlusion during the first minutes of reperfusion resulted in a reduction of infarct size (43.9±3.9% vs. 60.2±4.7, p=0.046, n=18) and α-fodrin degradation. These results suggest that 1) Ca2+-induced calpain translocation to the membrane during ischemia is independent of its activation 2) Intracellular acidosis inhibits calpain activation during ischemia and pHi normalization allows activation upon reperfusion 3) Calpain inhibition at the time of reperfusion appears as a potentially useful strategy to limit infarct size.

Role of the multidrug resistance protein-1 (MRP1) for endothelial progenitor cell function and survival - Accepted Manuscript

2010-03-04

Abstract: The multidrug resistance related protein-1 (MRP1) is a member of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) of cell surface transport proteins expressed in multiple cell lines and tissues including endothelial cells and haematopoietic stem cells. MRP1 blockade has been shown to prevent endothelial cell apoptosis and improve endothelial function. Besides mature endothelial cells vascular homing of endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) contribute to endothelial regeneration after vascular damage. Thus, we hypothesized that MRP1 influences number and function of EPCs and mechanisms of vascular repair. To test this, we investigated the effects of MRP1 inhibition in vitro and in vivo.MRP1 is abundantly expressed in cultured human early outgrowth EPCs. Pharmacological inhibition of MRP1 by MK571 increased intracellular glutathione levels and reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species levels. This stabilization of the intracellular redox homeostasis via inhibition of MRP1 prevented angiotensin II-induced apoptosis and increased the number of early outgrowth EPCs and colony-forming units in vitro. To extend the observed cytoprotective effect of MRP1 blockade in EPCs to an in vivo situation, MRP1-/- knockout mice were investigated. MRP1-/- knockout mice showed significantly increased numbers of EPCs circulating in the peripheral blood and residing in the bone marrow. Consistently, colony forming unit formation was enhanced and rate of apoptosis reduced in early outgrowth EPCs derived from MRP1-/- knockout mice. In addition, MRP1-/- knockout mice showed improved reendothelialization after carotid artery injury, and transfusion of MNCs derived from MRP1-/- knockout mice into wild-type mice accelerated reendothelialization compared to transfusion of wild-type cells. These findings indicate that the enhanced function and survival of EPCs in MRP1-/- knockout mice resulted in improved reendothelialization.In conclusion, MRP1 negatively influences EPC function and survival via perturbation of the intracellular redox homeostasis which finally leads to increased cellular apoptosis. These results reveal novel mechanistic insights and may identify MRP1 as therapeutic target to improve reendothelialization after vascular damage.

Exercise, eNOS and the heart after myocardial infarction - Accepted Manuscript

Julian D. Widder, Georg Ertl — 2010-03-02

The activation of p38alpha, and not p38beta, mitogen-activated protein kinase is required for ischemic preconditioning - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-26

Abstract: Numerous studies show pharmacological inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38s) before lethal ischemia prevents conditioning. However, these inhibitors have off-target effects and do not discriminate between the alpha and beta isoforms; the activation of which are thought to have diverse and perhaps opposing actions with p38α aggravating, and p38β reducing, myocardial injury.We adopted a chemical genetic approach using mice in which either the p38α (DRα) or p38β (DRβ) alleles were targeted to substitute the “gatekeeper” threonine residue for methionine, thereby preventing the binding of a pharmacological inhibitor, SB203580. Isolated, perfused wild-type (WT), DRα and DRβ mouse hearts underwent ischemic preconditioning with 4 cycles of 4min ischemia/6min reperfusion, with or without SB203580 (10µM), followed by 30minutes of global ischemia and 120minutes of reperfusion. In WT and DRβ hearts, SB203580 completely abolished the reduction in myocardial infarction seen with preconditioning and also the phosphorylation of downstream substrates of p38. These effects of SB203580 were not seen in DRα hearts. Furthermore ischaemic preconditioning occurred unaltered in p38β null hearts.Contrary to expectation the activation of p38α, and not p38β, is necessary for ischaemic preconditioning. Since p38α is also the isoform that leads to lethal myocardial injury, it is unlikely that targeted therapeutic strategies to achieve isoform-selective inhibition will only prevent the harmful consequences of activation.

Why does troponin I have so many phosphorylation sites? Fact and Fancy - Accepted Manuscript

R. John Solaro, Jolanda van der Velden — 2010-02-26

Abstract: We discuss a current controversy regarding the relative role of phosphorylation sites on cardiac troponin I (cTnI) (Figure 1) in physiological and patho-physiological cardiac function. Studies with mouse models and in vitro studies indicate that multi-site phosphorylations are involved in both control of maximum tension and sarcomeric responsiveness to Ca2+. Thus one hypothesis is that cardiac function reflects a balance of cTnI phosphorylations and a tilt in this balance may be maladaptive in acquired and genetic disorders of the heart. Studies on human heart samples taken mainly at end stage heart failure, and in depth proteomic analysis of human and rat heart samples demonstrate that Ser23/Ser24 are the major and perhaps the only sites likely to be relevant to control cardiac function. Thus functional significance of Ser23/Ser24 phosphorylation is taken as fact, whereas the function of some other sites is treated as fancy. Maybe the extremes will meet: in any case we both agree that further work needs to be carried out with relatively large mammals and with determination of the time course of changes in phosphorylation to identify transient modifications that may be relevant at a beat-to-beat basis. Moreover, we agree that the changes and effects of cTnI phosphorylation need to be fully integrated into the effects of other phosphorylations in the cardiac myocyte.

Modulation of cardiac ERG1 K+ channels by cGMP signaling - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-26

Abstract: Different K+ currents have been implicated in the myocardial action potential repolarization including the IKr. ERG1 α subunits, identified as the molecular correlate of IKr, have been shown to form heteromultimeric channels in the heart and their activity is modulated by a complex interplay of signal transduction events. Using electrophysiological techniques, we examined the effects of the cGMP-analogue 8-Br-cGMP on rat and guinea-pig papillary action potential duration (APD), on the biophysical properties of heterologously expressed homo- and heteromeric ERG1 channels, and on cardiac IKr. 8-Br-cGMP prolonged APD by about 25% after pharmacological inhibition of L-type Ca2+ currents and IKs. The prolongation was completely abolished by prior application of the hERG channel blocker E-4031 or the protein kinase G (PKG) inhibitor Rp-8-Br-cGMPS. Expression analysis revealed the presence of both ERG1a and -1b subunits in rat papillary muscle. Both 8-Br-cGMP and ANP inhibited heterologously expressed ERG1b and even stronger ERG1a/1b channels, whereas ERG1a channels remained unaffected. The inhibitory 8-Br-cGMP effects were PKG-dependent and involved a profound ERG current reduction, which was also observed with cardiac AP clamp recordings. Measurements of IKr from isolated mouse cardiomyocytes using Cs+ as charge carrier exhibited faster deactivation kinetics in atrial than in ventricular myocytes consistent with a higher relative expression of ERG1b transcripts in atria than in ventricles. 8-Br-cGMP significantly reduced IKr in atrial, but not in ventricular myocytes. These findings provide first evidence that through heteromeric assembly ERG1 channels become a critical target of cGMP-PKG signaling linking cGMP accumulation to cardiac IKr modulation.

Mechanical stress-induced sarcomere assembly for cardiac muscle growth in length and width - Accepted Manuscript

Brenda Russell, Matthew W. Curtis, Yevgeniya E. Koshman, Allen M. Samarel — 2010-02-26

Abstract: A ventricular myocyte experiences changes in length and load during every beat of the heart and has the ability to remodel cell shape to maintain cardiac performance. Specifically, myocytes elongate in response to increased diastolic strain by adding sarcomeres in series, and they thicken in response to continued systolic stress by adding filaments in parallel. Myocytes do this while still keeping the resting sarcomere length close to its optimal value at the peak of the length-tension curve. This review focuses on the little understood mechanisms by which direction of growth is matched in a physiologically appropriate direction. We propose that the direction of strain is detected by differential phosphorylation of proteins in the costamere, which then transmit signaling to the Z-disc for parallel or series addition of thin filaments regulated via the actin-capping processes. In this review, we link mechanotransduction to the molecular mechanisms for regulation of myocyte length and width.

Localised Ca channel phosphorylation modulates the distribution of L-type Ca current in cardiac myocytes - Accepted Manuscript

Anabelle Chase, John Colyer, Clive H. Orchard — 2010-02-26

Molecular determinants of Kv1.5 Channel block by diphenyl phosphine oxide-1 - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-25

Abstract: Kv1.5 channels conduct the ultra-rapid delayed rectifier current (IKur) that contributes to action potential repolarization of human atrial myocytes. Block of these channels has been proposed as a treatment for atrial arrhythmias. Diphenyl phosphine oxide-1 (DPO-1)is a novel and potent inhibitor of Kv1.5 potassium channels. The present study was undertaken to characterize the mechanisms and molecular determinants of channel block by DPO-1. Experiments were carried out on wild-type and mutant Kv1.5 channels expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes using the standard two microelectrode voltage clamp technique. DPO-1 blocked Kv1.5 current in oocytes with an IC50 of 0.78±0.12μM at +40mV. Block was enhanced by higher rates of stimulation, consistent with preferential binding of the drug to the open state of the channel. Ala-scanning mutagenesis of the pore domain of Kv1.5 identified the residues Thr480, Leu499, Leu506, Ile508, Leu510 and Val514 as components of the putative binding site for DPO-1, partially overlapping the site previously defined for the Kv1.5 channel blockers AVE0118 and S0100176. Block of Kv1.5 by DPO-1 was significantly reduced in the presence of Kvβ1.3.

Beta 3-adrenoreceptor Regulation of Nitric Oxide in the Cardiovascular System - Accepted Manuscript

An L. Moens, Ronghua Yang, Vabren L. Watts, Lili A. Barouch — 2010-02-24

Abstract: The presence of a third β-adrenergic receptor (β3-AR) in the cardiovascular system has challenged the classical paradigm of sympathetic regulation by β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. While β3-AR's role in the cardiovascular system remains controversial, increasing evidence suggests that it serves as a “brake” in sympathetic overstimulation - it is activated at high catecholamine concentrations, producing a negative inotropic effect that antagonizes β1-and β2-AR activity. The anti-adrenergic effects induced by β3-AR were initially linked to nitric oxide (NO) release via endothelial NO synthase (eNOS), although more recently it has been shown under some conditions to increase NO production in the cardiovascular system via the other two NOS isoforms, namely inducible NOS (iNOS) and neuronal NOS (nNOS). We summarize recent findings regarding β3-AR effects on the cardiovascular system and explore its prospective as a therapeutic target, particularly focusing on its emerging role as an important mediator of NO signaling in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disorders.

Insulin signaling regulates cardiac titin properties in heart development and diabetic cardiomyopathy - Accepted Manuscript

Martina Krüger, Kamila Babicz, Marion von Frieling-Salewsky, Wolfgang A. Linke — 2010-02-24

Abstract: Isoform-switching of the giant elastic protein titin is a main mechanism for adjusting passive myocardial stiffness in perinatal heart development and chronic heart disease. Previous evidence suggested that thyroid-hormone signaling converging onto the phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway regulates titin-isoform composition in developing cardiomyocytes. Here we hypothesized that insulin, another activator of PI3K/AKT, alters titin-isoform composition and titin-based stiffness. We also checked for insulin-induced changes in titin phosphorylation. In embryonic rat cardiomyocytes cultured in the presence of insulin for seven days, the mean proportion of the stiff N2B-titin isoform (Mw, 3,000kDa) significantly increased from 53% in controls to 65% in insulin-treated cells, the remainder being the more compliant N2BA-isoforms (Mw, 3,200-3,700kDa). This insulin-dependent titin-isoform shift was blocked by PI3K-inhibitor, LY294002, suggesting that insulin controls the cardiac titin-isoform pattern by activating PI3K/AKT. Titin phosphorylation was substantially increased in insulin-treated compared to control cardiomyocytes. The impact of insulin-deficiency in vivo on titin-isoform expression, titin phosphorylation, and passive myocardial stiffness was studied in streptozotocin-treated (STZ) rats as a model of diabetes mellitus type-1. Within four months, STZ rats developed cardiac hypertrophy and mild left ventricular fibrosis, concomitant with elevated glucose levels. The mean proportion of N2B-titin was slightly but significantly decreased from 86% in controls to 78% in STZ hearts. Titin phosphorylation levels remained unchanged. Mechanical measurements on skinned cardiac fibers showed only minor passive stiffness modifications in STZ myocardium. We conclude that insulin signaling regulates titin-isoform composition and titin phosphorylation in embryonic cardiomyocytes and could also contribute to altered diastolic function in diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Compensatory hypertrophy induced by ventricular cardiomyocyte-specific COX-2 expression in mice - Corrected Proof

2010-02-18

Abstract: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an important mediator of inflammation in stress and disease states. Recent attention has focused on the role of COX-2 in human heart failure and diseases owing to the finding that highly specific COX-2 inhibitors (i.e., Vioxx) increased the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke in chronic users. However, the specific impact of COX-2 expression in the intact heart remains to be determined. We report here the development of a transgenic mouse model, using a loxP-Cre approach, which displays robust COX-2 overexpression and subsequent prostaglandin synthesis specifically in ventricular myocytes. Histological, functional, and molecular analyses showed that ventricular myocyte specific COX-2 overexpression led to cardiac hypertrophy and fetal gene marker activation, but with preserved cardiac function. Therefore, specific induction of COX-2 and prostaglandin in vivo is sufficient to induce compensated hypertrophy and molecular remodeling.

Therapy with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in the chronic stage, but not in the acute stage, improves experimental autoimmune myocarditis in rats via nitric oxide - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-18

Abstract: Aims: We systematically investigated serial efficacy of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) therapy upon experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) in rats treated with and without the inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) with the analyses of tissue regeneration.Backgrounds: G-CSF could mobilize multipotent progenitor cells of bone marrow into the peripheral blood, and may improve ventricular function.Methods: A rat model of porcine myosin-induced EAM was used. After the immunization of myosin, G-CSF (10μg/kg/day) or saline was injected intraperitoneally on days 0-21 in Experiment I and on days 21-42 in Experiment II. Additional myosin-immunized rats were orally given 25mg/kg/day of NG-nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME), an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), in each experiment (each group; n=8-21). Serum cytokines and peripheral blood cell counts were measured in each group.Results: In Experiment I, G-CSF treatment aggravated cardiac pathology associated with increased macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels and enhanced superoxide production. In Experiment II, G-CSF treatment reduced the severity of myocarditis with increased capillary density and improved left ventricular ejection fraction. In the rats with EAM treated with G-CSF associated with oral L-NAME treatment in Experiment II, the severity of myocarditis was not reduced. Myocardial c-kit+ cells were demonstrated only in G-CSF treated group in Experiment II, but not in other groups.Conclusion: G-CSF has differential effects on EAM in rats associated with the modulation of cytokine network. The overwhelming superoxide production by G-CSF administration in the acute stage may worsen the disease. G-CSF therapy improved cardiac function via NO system in a rat model of myocarditis in the chronic stage, but not in the acute stage, possibly through the myocardial regeneration and acceleration of healing process.

X-box binding protein 1 regulates brain natriuretic peptide through a novel AP1/CRE-like element in cardiomyocytes - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-18

Abstract: The unfolded protein response (UPR) is triggered to assist protein folding when endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function is impaired. Recent studies demonstrated that ER stress can also induce cell-specific genes. In this study, we examined whether X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1), a major UPR-linked transcriptional factor, regulates the expression of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) in cardiomyocytes. In samples from failing human hearts, extensive splicing of XBP1 was observed along with increased expression of glucose-regulated protein of 78kD (GRP78), a target of spliced XBP1 (sXBP1), suggesting that the UPR was induced in heart failure in humans. Interestingly, quantitative real time-PCR revealed a positive correlation between cardiac expression of GRP78 and BNP, leading us to test the hypothesis that sXBP1 regulates BNP as well as GRP78 in cardiomyocytes. A pharmacological ER stressor caused a dose-dependent increase in the expression of sXBP1 and BNP by cultured cardiomyocytes. Short interfering RNA targeting XBP1 suppressed the induction of BNP expression by a pharmacological ER stressor or norepinephrine, which was rescued by the adenovirus-mediated overexpression of sXBP1. The promoter assay with overexpression of sXBP1 or norepinephrine showed that the proximal AP1/CRE-like element in the promoter region of BNP was critical for transcriptional regulation of BNP by sXBP1. Direct binding of sXBP1 to this element was confirmed by the chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. These findings suggest that ER stress observed in failing hearts regulates cardiac BNP expression through a novel promoter region of the AP1/CRE-like element.

Enhanced length-dependent Ca2+ activation in fish cardiomyocytes permits a large operating range of sarcomere lengths - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-18

Abstract: Fish myocytes continue to develop active tension when stretched to sarcomere lengths (SLs) on the descending limb of the mammalian length-tension relationship. A greater length-dependent activation in fish than mammals could account for this, since the increase in Ca2+ sensitivity may overcome the tendency for force to fall due to reduced cross-bridge availability at SLs above optimal myofilament overlap. We stretched skinned fish and rat ventricular myocytes over a wide range of SLs, including those on the descending limb of the mammalian length-tension relationship. We found that fish myocytes developed greater active tension than rat myocytes at physiological Ca2+ concentrations at long SLs as a result of a higher Ca2+ sensitivity and a steeper relationship between Ca2+ sensitivity and SL. We also investigated the diastolic properties of fish and rat myocytes at long SLs by measuring titin-based passive tension, titin isoform expression and titin phosphorylation. Fish myocytes produced higher titin-based passive tension despite expressing a higher proportion of a long N2BA-like isoform (38.0±2% of total vs 0% in rat). However, titin phosphorylation in fish myocytes was lower than in rat, which may explain some of the difference in passive tension between species. The high level of titin-based passive tension and the differential phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins in fish myocytes may contribute to the enhanced length-dependent activation and underlie the extended range of in vivo stroke volumes found in fish compared with mammals.

Post-translational regulation of calsarcin-1 during pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-18

Abstract: Chronic pressure overload to the heart leads to cardiac hypertrophy and failure through processes that involve reorganization of subcellular compartments and alteration of established signaling mechanisms. To identify proteins contributing to this process, we examined changes in nuclear-associated myofilament proteins as the murine heart undergoes progressive hypertrophy following pressure overload. Calsarcin-1, a negative regulator of calcineurin signaling in the heart, was found to be enriched in cardiac nuclei and displays increased abundance following pressure overload through a mechanism that is decoupled from transcriptional regulation. Using proteomics, we identified novel processing of this protein in the setting of cardiac injury and identified four residues subject to modification by phosphorylation. These studies are the first to determine mechanisms regulating calsarcin abundance during hypertrophy and failure and reveal the first evidence of post-translational modifications of calsarcin-1 in the myocardium. Overall, the findings expand the roles calsarcins to include nuclear tasks during cardiac growth.

Corrigendum to “MLP: A stress sensor goes nuclear” [J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 47 (2009) 423–425] - Corrected Proof

Sylvia Gunkel, Jörg Heineke, Denise Hilfiker-Kleiner, Ralph Knöll — 2010-02-15

The order of authors should appear as it does above.

Evidence for a Role of Immunoproteasomes in Regulating Cardiac Muscle Mass in Diabetic Mice - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-15

Abstract: The ubiquitin-proteasome system plays an important role in regulating muscle mass. Inducible immunoproteasome subunits LMP-2 and LMP-7 are constitutively expressed in the heart; however, their regulation and functions are poorly understood. We here investigated the hypothesis that immunoproteasomes regulate cardiac muscle mass in diabetic mice. Type 1 diabetes was induced in wildtype mice by streptozotocin. After hyperglycemia developed, insulin and the proteasome inhibitor epoxomicin were used to treat diabetic mice for 6weeks. Isolated mouse hearts were perfused with control or high glucose solution. Catalytic proteasome β-subunits and proteolytic activities were analyzed in the heart by immunoblotting and fluorogenic peptide degradation assays, respectively. Insulin and epoxomicin blocked loss of heart weight and improved cardiac function in diabetic mice. LMP-7 and its corresponding chymotryptic-like proteasome activity were increased in diabetic hearts and high glucose-treated hearts. Myosin heavy chain protein was decreased in diabetic hearts, which was largely reversed by epoxomicin. High glucose decreased LMP-2 protein levels in perfused hearts. In diabetic hearts, LMP-2 expression was downregulated whereas expression of the phosphastase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN) and the muscle atrophy F-box were upregulated. Moreover, mice with muscle-specific knockout of PTEN gene demonstrated increased cardiac muscle mass, while mice with LMP-2 deficiency demonstrated PTEN accumulation, muscle mass loss, and contractile impairment in the heart. Therefore, we concluded that high glucose regulates immunoproteasome subunits and modifies proteasome activities in the heart, and that dysregulated immunoproteasome subunits may mediate loss of cardiac muscle mass in experimental diabetic mice.

Beneficial Effects of Exercise Training after Myocardial Infarction Require Full eNOS Expression - Accepted Manuscript

2010-02-12

Abstract: Exercise training attenuates left ventricular (LV) dysfunction after myocardial infarction (MI). It could be speculated that these effects of exercise are mediated by increased endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) activity. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that eNOS plays a critical role in the exercise-induced amelioration of LV dysfunction after MI. MI or sham was induced in eNOS-/-, eNOS+/- and eNOS+/+ mice. After 8weeks of voluntary wheel running (∼7km/day in all groups) or sedentary housing, global cardiac function was determined in vivo and (immuno)histochemistry was performed to assess cardiomyocyte size, fibrosis, capillary density and apoptosis in remote myocardium. At baseline eNOS-/- mice had higher mean aortic pressure compared to eNOS+/- and eNOS+/+ mice, but had normal global cardiac function. MI resulted in marked LV remodeling, including cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and a reduction in capillary density, increased fibrosis and apoptosis, as well as LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction to the same extent in all genotypes. In eNOS+/+ MI mice exercise abolished fibrosis and apoptosis in the remote myocardium, attenuated LV systolic dysfunction and ameliorated pulmonary congestion. These beneficial effects were lost in eNOS+/- and eNOS-/- mice, while LV systolic dysfunction and pulmonary congestion in eNOS+/- mice were exacerbated by exercise. In conclusion, the beneficial effects of exercise after MI on LV remodeling and dysfunction depend critically on endogenous eNOS. The observation that the lack of one eNOS allele is sufficient to negate all beneficial effects of exercise, strongly suggests that exercise depends on full eNOS expression.

Guest editor's introduction - Corrected Proof

R. John Solaro — 2010-02-11

The activity of cardiac myocytes reflects a confluence of a multitude of electrical and chemical signals that promote and control the ability of the myocytes to shorten and develop force. The biological machine responsible for this mechanical activity is housed in the sarcomeres, which are highly ordered structures that undergo remarkable mechanical changes linked to the heartbeat. The elucidation of the cardiac sarcomere structure/function relations represents one of the triumphs of the confluence and integration of biophysical, biochemical, and structural studies with physiology of a major organ. Early on, the sarcomeres were viewed with little or no role in the control of cardiac function beyond being force and shortening generators switched on and off by the levels of Ca2+ provided by membrane-controlled processes. We now know that proteins of the sarcomere are much more than motors and sliding filaments but are fully engaged in the processes controlling cardiac mechanical and electrical dynamics, level of activity, growth, and remodeling. Reviews and original articles in this issue of the Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology provide strong evidence of the impact of the evolution of our understanding of the role of the sarcomere in control of cardiac function. They also emphasize that understanding the multiplex functions of sarcomeres represents a significant puzzle in cardiac biology.

Dysregulation of cadherins in the intercalated disc of the spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone rat - Corrected Proof

2010-02-08

Abstract: The structural integrity of cardiac cells is maintained by the Ca2+-dependent homophilic cell–cell adhesion of cadherins. N-cadherin is responsible for this adhesion under normal physiological conditions. The role of cadherins in adverse cardiac pathology is less clear. We studied the hearts of the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive (SHRSP) rat as a genetic model of cardiac hypertrophy and compared them to Wistar–Kyoto control animals. Western blotting of protein homogenates from 12-week old SHRSP animals indicated that similar levels of β, γ-, and α-catenin and T, N and R-cadherin were expressed in the control and SHRSP animals. However, dramatically higher levels of E-cadherin were detected in SHRSP animals compared to controls at 6, 12 and 18weeks of age. This was confirmed by quantitative Taqman PCR and immunohistochemistry. E-cadherin was located at the intercalated disc of the myocytes in co-localisation with connexin 43. Adenoviral overexpression of E-cadherin in rat H9c2 cells and primary rabbit myocytes resulted in a significant reduction in myocyte cell diameter and breadth. E-cadherin overexpression resulted in re-localisation of β-catenin to the cell surface particularly to cell–cell junctions. Subsequent immunohistochemistry of the hearts of WKY and SHRSP animals also revealed increased levels of β-catenin in the intercalated disc in the SHRSP compared to WKY. Therefore, remodelling of the intercalated disc in the hearts of SHRSP animals may contribute to the altered function observed in these animals.

Orai1 and Stim1 regulate normal and hypertrophic growth in cardiomyocytes - Corrected Proof

2010-02-08

Abstract: Cardiac hypertrophy is an independent risk for heart failure (HF) and sudden death. Deciphering signalling pathways dependent on extracellular calcium (Ca2+) influx that control normal and pathological cardiac growth may enable identification of novel therapeutic targets. The objective of the present study is to determine the role of the Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channel Orai1 and stromal interaction molecule 1 (Stim1) in postnatal cardiomyocyte store operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) and impact on normal and hypertrophic postnatal cardiomyocyte growth. Employing a combination of siRNA-mediated gene silencing, cultured neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes together with indirect immunofluorescence, epifluorescent Ca2+ imaging and site-specific protein phosphorylation and real-time mRNA expression analysis, we show for the first time that both Orai1 and Stim1 are present in cardiomyocytes and required for SOCE due to intracellular Ca2+ store depletion by thapsigargin. Stim1-KD but not Orai1-KD significantly decreased diastolic Ca2+ levels and caffeine-releasable Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Conversely, Orai1-KD but not Stim1-KD significantly diminished basal NRCM cell size, anp and bnp mRNA levels and activity of the calcineurin (CnA) signalling pathway although diminishing both Orai1 and Stim1 proteins similarly attenuated calmodulin kinase II (CamKII) and ERK1/2 activity under basal conditions. Both Orai1- and Stim1-KD completely abrogated phenylephrine (PE) mediated hypertrophic NRCM growth and enhanced natriuretic factor expression by inhibiting Gq-protein conveyed activation of the CamKII and ERK1/2 signalling pathway. Interestingly, only Orai1-KD but not Stim1-KD prevented Gq-mediated CaN-dependent prohypertrophic signalling. This study shows for the first time that both Orai1 and Stim1 have a key role in cardiomyocyte SOCE regulating both normal and hypertrophic postnatal cardiac growth in vitro.

The critical role of intracellular zinc in adenosine A2 receptor activation induced cardioprotection against reperfusion injury - Corrected Proof

2010-02-08

Abstract: Exogenous zinc can protect cardiac cells from reperfusion injury, but the exact roles of endogenous zinc in the pathogenesis of reperfusion injury and in adenosine A2 receptor activation-induced cardioprotection against reperfusion injury remain unknown. Adenosine A1/A2 receptor agonist 5′-(N-ethylcarboxamido) adenosine (NECA) given at reperfusion reduced infarct size in isolated rat hearts subjected to 30min ischemia followed by 2h of reperfusion. This effect of NECA was partially but significantly blocked by the zinc chelator N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis-(2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine (TPEN), and ZnCl2 given at reperfusion mimicked the effect of NECA by reducing infarct size. Total tissue zinc concentrations measured with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICPOES) were decreased upon reperfusion in rat hearts and this was reversed by NECA. NECA increased intracellular free zinc during reperfusion in the heart. Confocal imaging study showed a rapid increase in intracellular free zinc in isolated rat cardiomyocytes treated with NECA. Further experiments revealed that NECA increased total zinc levels upon reperfusion in mitochondria isolated from isolated hearts. NECA attenuated mitochondrial swelling upon reperfusion in isolated hearts and this was inhibited by TPEN. Similarly, NECA prevented the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) caused by oxidant stress in cardiomyocytes. Finally, both NECA and ZnCl2 inhibited the mitochondrial metabolic activity. NECA-induced cardioprotection against reperfusion injury is mediated by intracellular zinc. NECA prevents reperfusion-induced zinc loss and relocates zinc to mitochondria. The inhibitory effects of zinc on both the mPTP opening and the mitochondrial metabolic activity may account for the cardioprotective effect of NECA.

Cardiomyocyte-targeted overexpression of the coxsackie–adenovirus receptor causes a cardiomyopathy in association with β-catenin signaling - Corrected Proof

Laura Caruso, Stella Yuen, Julie Smith, Mansoor Husain, Mary Anne Opavsky — 2010-02-08

Abstract: The coxsackie–adenovirus receptor (CAR) is an adhesion molecule found at the intercalated disc of cardiomyocytes in association with other adherens and tight junction proteins. CAR expression is increased at cardiomyocyte junctions in patients with heart failure. It is not known what contribution elevated CAR expression makes to cardiac pathology. We generated a binary transgenic mouse enabling cardiac-restricted doxycycline-regulated expression of Flag-tagged murine CAR (mCAR+/αMtTA+ mice). Myocardial CAR levels were increased 6-fold in mCAR+/αMtTA+ mice, localizing to intercalated discs and sarcolemma. Well at birth, mCAR+/αMtTA+ mice developed a severe cardiomyopathy and died by 4weeks. Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy was evident at 1week, with increased heart:body weight ratios by 3weeks. Disorganization and degeneration of cardiomyocytes were evident with disrupted adherens junctions. Doxycycline administration turned off transgene expression and rescued mice from the development of the cardiomyopathic phenotype. In CAR-overexpressing mCAR+/αMtTA+ mice, adherens junction proteins were abnormally expressed. N-cadherin protein levels were 83% lower in mCAR+/αMtTA+ hearts vs controls at 1week, with levels subsequently increased above controls at 3weeks. β-catenin expression was 90% and 135% above controls at 1 and 3weeks, respectively. Nuclear translocation of β-catenin in cardiomyocytes of mCAR+/αMtTA+ mice was associated with increased c-myc RNA, a target of active β-catenin known to be associated with cardiac hypertrophy. Our study is the first to demonstrate that increased CAR expression can induce a cardiomyopathy and supports a model whereby the pathogenesis is determined by CAR stimulated β-catenin signaling, and/or disruption of the adherens junction.

Cardiac spectrins: Alternative splicing encodes functional diversity - Corrected Proof

Thomas J. Hund, Peter J. Mohler — 2010-02-08

Normal cardiac physiology relies on the precise localization and function of ion channels, receptors, regulatory molecules, and structural proteins at distinct locations in the cell. Spectrins are actin-associated proteins that provide structural support to the cell membrane and play critical roles in compartmentalization of subcellular microdomains. Importantly, abnormalities in spectrin and spectrin-associated proteins (e.g. ankyrins, obscurin, protein 4.1) have been linked with disease including congenital and acquired arrhythmia syndromes and myopathy . The unique structure of spectrin not only allows it to provide mechanical integrity to the cell membrane, but also organize macromolecular complexes at well-defined subcellular domains. Thus, increasing our understanding of spectrin function in the heart may illuminate exciting new pathways for altering cardiac excitability and function.

Electrical stimulation of sympathetic neurons induces autocrine/paracrine effects of NGF mediated by TrkA - Corrected Proof

2010-02-04

Abstract: Neuronal remodeling with increased sympathetic innervation density has been implicated in the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation (AF). Recently, increased transcardiac nerve growth factor (NGF) levels were observed in a canine model of AF. Whether atrial myocytes or cardiac sympathetic neurons are the source of neurotrophins, and whether NGF is the main neurotrophic factor contributing to sympathetic nerve sprouting (SNS) in AF still remains unclear. Therefore, neonatal rat atrial myocytes were cultured under conditions of high frequency electrical field stimulation (HFES) to mimic rapid atrial depolarization. Likewise, sympathetic neurons from the superior cervical ganglia of neonatal rats were exposed to HFES to simulate the physiological effect of sympathetic stimulation. Real-time PCR, ELISA and Western blots were performed to analyze the expression pattern of NGF and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3). Baseline NGF and NT-3 content was 3-fold higher in sympathetic neurons than in atrial myocytes (relative NGF protein expression: 1±0.0 vs. 0.37±0.11, all n=5, p<0.05). HFES of sympathetic neurons induced a frequency dependent NGF and NT-3 gene and protein up-regulation (relative NGF protein expression: 0Hz=1±0.0 vs. 5Hz=1.13±0.19 vs. 50Hz=1.77±0.08, all n=5, 0Hz/5Hz vs. 50Hz p<0.05), with a subsequent increase of growth associated protein 43 (GAP-43) expression and morphological SNS. Moreover, HFES of sympathetic neurons increased the tyrosine kinase A (TrkA) receptor expression. HFES induced neurotrophic effects could be abolished by lidocaine, TrkA blockade or NGF neutralizing antibodies, while NT-3 neutralizing antibodies had no significant effect on SNS. In neonatal rat atrial myocytes, HFES resulted in myocyte hypertrophy accompanied by an increase in NT-3 and a decrease in NGF expression. In summary, this study provides evidence that high-rate electrical stimulation of sympathetic neurons mediates nerve sprouting by an increase in NGF expression that targets the TrkA receptor in an autocrine/paracrine manner.

A3 adenosine receptor activation during reperfusion reduces infarct size through actions on bone marrow-derived cells - Corrected Proof

2010-02-03

Abstract: The goal of this study was to examine whether the A3 adenosine receptor (A3AR) agonist Cl-IB-MECA protects against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury when administered at the time of reperfusion in an in vivo mouse model of infarction induced by 30min of coronary occlusion and 24h of reperfusion. Treating B6 wild-type with Cl-IB-MECA during the reperfusion phase (100μg/kg i.v. bolus+0.3μg/kg/min subcutaneously via implantation of Alzet mini-osmotic pumps) reduced myocardial infarct size ∼37% from 50.1±2.5% in vehicle-treated mice to 31.6±2.8% in Cl-IB-MECA-treated mice, and significantly reduced the number of leukocytes that infiltrated into the ischemic-reperfused myocardium. Cl-IB-MECA did not reduce infarct size or limit leukocyte accumulation in studies using B6 congenic A3AR gene “knock-out” mice or in chimeric mice lacking the expression of A3ARs in bone marrow (BM)-derived cells. Subsequent mechanistic studies demonstrated that Cl-IB-MECA inhibited migration of mouse neutrophils isolated from BM towards the chemotactic substance c5a in trans-well migration assays, and inhibited leukocyte migration into the peritoneal cavity in a mouse model of thioglycollate-induced peritonitis. We conclude that treating with the A3AR agonist Cl-IB-MECA at the time of reperfusion provides effective protection from ischemia/reperfusion injury in the heart through activation of the A3AR expressed in BM-derived cells, potentially by suppressing the robust inflammatory reaction that occurs during reperfusion and neutrophil-mediated tissue injury.

The influence of FGF2 high molecular weight (HMW) isoforms in the development of cardiac ischemia–reperfusion injury - Corrected Proof

2010-01-29

Abstract: Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) consists of multiple protein isoforms (low [LMW] and high molecular weight [HMW]), which are localized to different cellular compartments, indicating unique biological activity. We previously showed that the LMW isoform is important in protecting the heart from myocardial dysfunction associated with ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury, but the roles of the HMW isoforms remain unknown. To elucidate the role of HMW isoforms in I/R and cardioprotection, hearts from novel mouse models, in which the murine FGF2 HMWs are knocked out (HMWKO) or the human FGF2 24 kDa HMW isoform is overexpressed (HMW Tg) and their wildtype (Wt) or non-transgenic (NTg) cohorts were subjected to an ex vivo work-performing heart model of I/R. There was a significant improvement in post-ischemic recovery of cardiac function in HMWKO hearts (76±5%, p<0.05) compared to Wt hearts (55±5%), with a corresponding decrease in HMW Tg function (line 20: 38±6% and line 28: 33±4%, p<0.05) compared to non-transgenic hearts (68±9%). FGF2 LMW isoform was secreted from Wt and HMWKO hearts during I/R, and a FGF receptor (FGFR) inhibitor, PD173074 caused a decrease in cardiac function when administered in I/R in Wt and FGF2 HMWKO hearts (p<0.05), indicating that FGFR is involved in FGF2 LMW isoform's biological effect in ischemia–reperfusion injury. Moreover, overexpression of HMW isoform reduced FGFR1 phosphorylation/activation with no further decrease in the phosphorylation state in the presence of the FGFR inhibitor. Overall, our data indicate that HMW isoforms have a detrimental role in the development of post-ischemic myocardial dysfunction.

Exogenous expression of HIF-1α promotes cardiac differentiation of embryonic stem cells - Corrected Proof

2010-01-29

Abstract: Hypoxia plays an important role in the proliferation, differentiation and maintenance of the cardiovascular system during development. While low oxygen tension appears to direct the cultured embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. At a molecular level, hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) plays an important role in handling the hypoxia signal. In the present study, we demonstrated that expression of exogenous HIF-1α cDNA into murine ESCs significantly promoted cardiogenesis as indicated by a higher percentage of beating embryoid body and troponin-T positive cell counts as well as increased expression of early and late cardiac markers, such as GATA-binding protein 4 and 6, NK2 transcription factor related locus 5, α-myosin heavy chain, β-myosin heavy chain and myosin light chain 2 ventricular transcripts. In addition, the transduced cells exhibited increased mRNA levels of cardiotrophin-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor, along with phosphorylation of eNOS [p-eNOS (ser1171)]. Application of NOS inhibitors, diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI), Nω-Nitro-l-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (l-NAME) or Nω-Nitro-l-arginine (l-NNA) abolished the HIF-1α stimulated cardiac differentiation. With the clues of upregulated mRNA expression of calcium handling proteins, ryanodine receptor 2, sodium calcium exchanger and sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase, in the transduced HIF-1α ESCs, further study indicated that the maximum upstroke and decay velocity was significantly increased in both non-caffeine and caffeine-induced calcium transient in ESCs-derived cardiomyocytes. This suggests a well developed function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in ESC-derived cardiomyocytes. Electrophysiological study also indicated that a portion of the HIF-1α-transduced cells exhibited prominent phase-4 depolarization. These findings suggest that keen activation of the HIF-1 pathway enhances differentiation and maturation of cardiomyocytes derived from ESCs.

Solution structure of the regulatory domain of human cardiac troponin C in complex with the switch region of cardiac troponin I and W7: The basis of W7 as an inhibitor of cardiac muscle contraction - Corrected Proof

Marta Oleszczuk, Ian M. Robertson, Monica X. Li, Brian D. Sykes — 2010-01-29

Abstract: The solution structure of Ca2+-bound regulatory domain of cardiac troponin C (cNTnC) in complex with the switch region of troponin I (cTnI147–163) and the calmodulin antagonist, N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfinamide (W7), has been determined by NMR spectroscopy. The structure reveals that the W7 naphthalene ring interacts with the terminal methyl groups of M47, M60, and M81 as well as aliphatic and aromatic side chains of several other residues in the hydrophobic pocket of cNTnC. The H3 ring proton of W7 also contacts the methyl groups of I148 and M153 of cTnI147–163. The N-(6-aminohexyl) tail interacts primarily with the methyl groups of V64 and M81, which are located on the C- and D-helices of cNTnC. Compared to the structure of the cNTnC•Ca2+•W7 complex (Hoffman, R. M. B. and Sykes, B. D. (2009) Biochemistry 48, 5541–5552), the tail of W7 reorients slightly toward the surface of cNTnC while the ring remains in the hydrophobic pocket. The positively charged –NH3+ group from the tail of W7 repels the positively charged R147 of cTnI147–163. As a result, the N-terminus of the peptide moves away from cNTnC and the helical content of cTnI147–163 is diminished, when compared to the structure of cNTnC•Ca2+•cTnI147–163 (Li, M. X., Spyracopoulos, L., and Sykes B. D. (1999) Biochemistry 38, 8289–8298). Thus the ternary structure cNTnC•Ca2+•W7•cTnI147–163 reported in this study offers an explanation for the ∼13-fold affinity reduction of cTnI147–163 for cNTnC•Ca2+ in the presence of W7 and provides a structural basis for the inhibitory effect of W7 in cardiac muscle contraction. This generates molecular insight into structural features that are useful for the design of cTnC-specific Ca2+-desensitizing drugs.

Characterization and expression of a heart-selective alternatively spliced variant of αII-spectrin, cardi+, during development in the rat - Corrected Proof

2010-01-28

Abstract: Spectrin is a large, flexible protein that stabilizes membranes and organizes proteins and lipids into microdomains in intracellular organelles and at the plasma membrane. Alternative splicing occurs in spectrins, but it is not yet clear if these small variations in structure alter spectrin's functions. Three alternative splice sites have been identified previously for αII-spectrin. Here we describe a new alternative splice site, a 21-amino acid sequence in the 21st spectrin repeat that is only expressed in significant amounts in cardiac muscle (GenBank GQ502182). The insert, which we term αII-cardi+, results in an insertion within the high affinity nucleation site for binding of α-spectrins to β-spectrins. To assess the developmental regulation of the αII-cardi+ isoform, we used qRT-PCR and quantitative immunoblotting methods to measure the levels of this form and the αII-cardi− form in the cardiac muscles of rats, from embryonic day 16 (E16) through adulthood. The αII-cardi+ isoform constituted ∼26% of the total αII-spectrin in E16 hearts but decreased to ∼6% of the total after 3 weeks of age. We used long-range RT-PCR and Southern blot hybridization to examine possible linkage of the αII-cardi+ alternatively spliced sequence with alternatively spliced sequences of αII-spectrin that had been previously reported. We identified two new isoforms of αII-spectrin containing the cardi+ insert. These were named αIIΣ9 and αIIΣ10 in accordance with the spectrin naming conventions. In vitro studies of recombinant αII-spectrin polypeptides representing the two splice variants of αII-spectrin, αII-cardi+ and αII-cardi−, revealed that the αII-cardi+ subunit has lower affinity for the complementary site in repeats 1–4 of βII-spectrin, with a KD value of ∼1 nM, as measured by surface plasmon resonance (SPR). In addition, the αII-cardi+ form showed 1.8-fold lower levels of binding to its site on βII-spectrin than the αII-cardi− form, both by SPR and blot overlay. This suggests that the 21-amino acid insert prevented some of the αII-cardi+ form from interacting with βII-spectrin. Fusion proteins expressing the αII-cardi+ sequence within the two terminal spectrin repeats of αII-spectrin were insoluble in solution and aggregated in neonatal myocytes, consistent with the possibility that this insert removes a significant portion of the protein from the population that can bind β subunits. Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes infected with adenovirus encoding GFP-fusion proteins of repeats 18–21 of αII-spectrin with the cardi+ insert formed many new processes. These processes were only rarely seen in myocytes expressing the fusion protein lacking the insert or in controls expressing only GFP. Our results suggest that the embryonic mammalian heart expresses a significant amount of αII-spectrin with a reduced avidity for β-spectrin and the ability to promote myocyte growth.

Increased myofilament Ca2+-sensitivity and arrhythmia susceptibility - Corrected Proof

Sabine Huke, Björn C. Knollmann — 2010-01-25

Abstract: Increased myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity is a common attribute of many inherited and acquired cardiomyopathies that are associated with cardiac arrhythmias. Accumulating evidence supports the concept that increased myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity is an independent risk factor for arrhythmias. This review describes and discusses potential underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms how myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity affects cardiac excitation and leads to the generation of arrhythmias. Emphasized are downstream effects of increased myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity: altered Ca2+ buffering/handling, impaired energy metabolism and increased mechanical stretch, and how they may contribute to arrhythmogenesis.

Electrophysiological remodeling in heart failure - Corrected Proof

Yanggan Wang, Joseph A. Hill — 2010-01-21

Abstract: Heart failure affects nearly 6 million Americans, with a half-million new cases emerging each year. Whereas up to 50% of heart failure patients die of arrhythmia, the diverse mechanisms underlying heart failure-associated arrhythmia are poorly understood. As a consequence, effectiveness of antiarrhythmic pharmacotherapy remains elusive. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of heart failure-associated molecular events impacting the electrical function of the myocardium. We approach this from an anatomical standpoint, summarizing recent insights gleaned from pre-clinical models and discussing their relevance to human heart failure.

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 mediates myocardial ischemic injury through JNK-dependent signaling pathway - Corrected Proof

2010-01-21

Abstract: Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling regulates embryonic development of many organ systems and defective BMP signaling has been implicated in adult disorders of many of these systems. However, its relevance in cardiac disease has not been reported. Here we demonstrate for the first time that Bmp4 activity promotes cellular apoptosis following ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury induced myocardial infarction (MI). Bmp4 heterozygous null mice (Bmp4+/−) demonstrated reduced infarct size, less myocardial apoptosis and down-regulation of pro-apoptotic proteins relative to wild-type mice following I/R injury. This was associated with reduction in I/R induced BMP4 levels in the left ventricular infarcted region. Furthermore, treatment of neonatal cardiomyocytes with BMP4 resulted in time and dose-dependent increase in cellular apoptosis and activation of the JNK MAP kinase pathway. In contrast, while JNK activation was significantly attenuated in Bmp4+/− mice and following Smad1 inhibition in myocytes, inhibition of JNK with a specific inhibitory peptide, TAT-JBD20, blocked BMP4 induced apoptosis. In vivo treatment of mice with Noggin, an endogenous extracellular BMP antagonist, or dorsomorphin, a small molecule inhibitor of BMP signaling, reduced infarct size, and inhibited pro-apoptotic signaling accompanied by an inhibition of Smad1 phosphorylation and JNK activation. These studies identify a novel role for Bmp4 in the pathogenesis of myocardial infarction and illustrate the use of a small molecule inhibitor of BMP signaling for treatment of acute I/R injury.

Epicardium and pericardium: A joint force for infarct repair? - Corrected Proof

Tetsuji Miura — 2010-01-21

The epicardium is a connective tissue membrane covering the heart and is continuous with the investing pericardium. The epicardium consists of a layer of fibroelastic tissue merging with the endomysium of the underlying cardiac muscle and a layer of superficial mesothelial membrane (visceral layer of serous pericardium). The pericardium also consists of two layers, outer fibroelastic connective tissue layer and inner mesothelial membrane pericardium (parietal layer of serous pericardium), and the parietal and visceral serous pericardia are continuous structures. Physical properties and physiological function of the pericardium were extensively studied in the 1980s, and it has been shown that the pericardium restrains left ventricular filling and enhances diastolic ventricular interaction (DVI). The effect of the pericardium is relatively small under physiological conditions and perhaps contributes to attenuation of respiration-induced changes in ventricular preload . However, since the stress–strain relationship of the pericardium is J-shaped, increases in right ventricular pressure or volume (for example, by acute pulmonary embolism or by right ventricular infarction) enlarges pericardial constraint and DVI, compromising left ventricular filling and thus cardiac output .

Biglycan protects cardiomyocytes against hypoxia/reoxygenation injury: Role of nitric oxide - Corrected Proof

2010-01-21

Abstract: Biglycan, a proteoglycan component of extracellular matrix, has been suspected to contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, but overexpression of biglycan in transgenic mice has been shown to induce cardioprotective genes including nitric oxide (NO) synthases in the heart. Therefore, here we hypothesized if exogenous administration of biglycan exerts cytoprotection. Primary cardiomyocytes from neonatal rats were subjected to 150 min hypoxia and 2 h reoxygenation. Mortality of cardiomyocytes was dose-dependently attenuated by pretreatment with 1–100 nM biglycan. Biglycan enhanced eNOS mRNA and protein, and significantly increased NO content of cardiomyocytes. The NO synthase inhibitor l-nitro-arginine-methyl-ester significantly attenuated the cytoprotective effect of biglycan. This is the first demonstration that biglycan leads to cytoprotection against hypoxia/reoxygenation injury, and that this phenomenon is partially mediated by an NO-dependent mechanism.

Calcium sensitivity, force frequency relationship and cardiac troponin I: Critical role of PKA and PKC phosphorylation sites - Corrected Proof

2010-01-18

Abstract: Transgenic models with pseudo phosphorylation mutants of troponin I, PKA sites at Ser 22 and 23 (cTnIDD22,23 mice) or PKC sites at Ser 42 and 44 (cTnIAD22,23DD42,44) displayed differential force–frequency relationships and afterload relaxation delay in vivo. We hypothesized that cTnI PKA and PKC phosphomimics impact cardiac muscle rate-related developed twitch force and relaxation kinetics in opposite directions. cTnIDD22,23 transgenic mice produce a force frequency relationship (FFR) equivalent to control NTG albeit at lower peak [Ca2+]i, while cTnIAD22,23DD42,44 TG mice had a flat FFR with normal peak systolic [Ca2+]i, thus suggestive of diminished responsiveness to [Ca2+]i at higher frequencies. Force–[Ca2+]i hysteresis analysis revealed that cTnIDD22,23 mice have a combined enhanced myofilament calcium peak response with an enhanced slope of force development and decline per unit of [Ca2+]i, whereas cTnIAD22,23DD42,44 transgenic mice showed the opposite. The computational ECME model predicts that the TG lines may be distinct from each other due to different rate constants for association/dissociation of Ca2+ at the regulatory site of cTnC. Our data indicate that cTnI phosphorylation at PKA sites plays a critical role in the FFR by increasing relative myofilament responsiveness, and results in a distinctive transition between activation and relaxation, as displayed by force–[Ca2+]i hysteresis loops. These findings may have important implications for understanding the specific contribution of cTnI to β-adrenergic inotropy and lusitropy and to adverse contractile effects of PKC activation, which is relevant during heart failure development.

cAMP-independent activation of protein kinase A by the peroxynitrite generator SIN-1 elicits positive inotropic effects in cardiomyocytes - Corrected Proof

2010-01-18

Abstract: The phosphatase vs. kinase equilibrium plays a critical role in the regulation of myocardial contractility. Previous studies have demonstrated that peroxynitrite exerts a biphasic effect on cardiomyocyte contraction, such that high peroxynitrite reduced β-adrenergic-stimulated myocyte contraction by inducing the dephosphorylation of phospholamban (PLB) via phosphatase activation. Conversely, low peroxynitrite increased basal and β-adrenergic-stimulated contraction also through a PLB-dependent mechanism. However, previous studies have not elucidated the mechanism underlying the positive effects of low peroxynitrite on myocyte contraction. In the current study, we examined the phosphatase vs. kinase equilibrium as a potential mechanism underlying the positive effects of peroxynitrite. SIN-1 (peroxynitrite donor, 10 μmol/L) increased myocyte Ca2+ transient and shortening amplitude, accelerated myocyte relaxation, and enhanced PLB phosphorylation. Specific inhibition of PP1/PP2a with okadaic acid failed to inhibit this positive effect. However, inhibition of PKA with KT5720 completely abolished the effects of SIN-1 on myocyte contraction. Additionally, SIN-1 induced a significant increase in PKA activity in cardiac homogenates, which was inhibited with FeTPPS (peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst). Surprisingly, SIN-1 also increased activity in purified preparations (i.e., in the absence of cAMP) of PKA. Therefore, our data suggest that peroxynitrite directly activates PKA (independent from cAMP), resulting in the enhancement of myocyte contraction and relaxation through the phosphorylation of PLB.

Effect of troponin I Ser23/24 phosphorylation on Ca2+-sensitivity in human myocardium depends on the phosphorylation background - Corrected Proof

2010-01-15

Abstract: Protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated phosphorylation of Ser23/24 of cardiac troponin I (cTnI) causes a reduction in Ca2+-sensitivity of force development. This study aimed to determine whether the PKA-induced modulation of the Ca2+-sensitivity is solely due to cTnI phosphorylation or depends on the phosphorylation status of other sarcomeric proteins. Endogenous troponin (cTn) complex in donor cardiomyocytes was partially exchanged (up to 66±1%) with recombinant unphosphorylated human cTn and in failing cells similar exchange was achieved using PKA-(bis)phosphorylated cTn complex. Cardiomyocytes immersed in exchange solution without complex added served as controls. Partial exchange of unphosphorylated cTn complex in donor tissue significantly increased Ca2+-sensitivity (pCa50) to 5.50±0.02 relative to the donor control value (pCa50=5.43±0.04). Exchange in failing tissue with PKA-phosphorylated cTn complex did not change Ca2+-sensitivity relative to the failing control (pCa50=5.60±0.02). Subsequent treatment of the cardiomyocytes with the catalytic subunit of PKA significantly decreased Ca2+-sensitivity in donor and failing tissue. Analysis of phosphorylated cTnI species revealed the same distribution of un-, mono- and bis-phosphorylated cTnI in donor control and in failing tissue exchanged with PKA-phosphorylated cTn complex. Phosphorylation of myosin-binding protein-C in failing tissue was significantly lower compared to donor tissue. These differences in Ca2+-sensitivity in donor and failing cells, despite similar distribution of cTnI species, could be abolished by subsequent PKA-treatment and indicate that other targets of PKA are involved the reduction of Ca2+-sensitivity. Our findings suggest that the sarcomeric phosphorylation background, which is altered in cardiac disease, influences the impact of cTnI Ser23/24 phosphorylation by PKA on Ca2+-sensitivity.

Rescue of familial cardiomyopathies by modifications at the level of sarcomere and Ca2+ fluxes - Corrected Proof

Marco L. Alves, Robert D. Gaffin, Beata M. Wolska — 2010-01-15

Abstract: Cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group of diseases of the myocardium associated with mechanical and/or electrical dysfunction that frequently show inappropriate ventricular hypertrophy or dilation. Current data suggest that numerous mutations in several genes can cause cardiomyopathies, and the severity of their phenotypes is also influenced by modifier genes. Two major types of inherited cardiomyopathies include familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHC) and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). FHC typically involves increased myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity associated with diastolic dysfunction, whereas DCM often results in decreased myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity and systolic dysfunction. Besides alterations in myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity, alterations in the levels of Ca2+-handling proteins have also been described in both diseases. Recent work in animal models has attempted to rescue FHC and DCM via modifications at the myofilament level, altering Ca2+ homeostasis by targeting Ca2+-handling proteins, such as the sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase and phospholamban, or by interfering with the products of different modifiers genes. Although attempts to rescue cardiomyopathies in animal models have shown great promise, further studies are needed to validate these strategies in order to provide more effective and specific treatments.

Cardiomyopathy-causing deletion K210 in cardiac troponin T alters phosphorylation propensity of sarcomeric proteins - Corrected Proof

2010-01-15

Abstract: Ca2+ desensitization of myofilaments is indicated as a primary mechanism for the pathogenesis of familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) associated with the deletion of lysine 210 (ΔK210) in cardiac troponin T (cTnT). ΔK210 knock-in mice closely recapitulate the clinical phenotypes documented in patients with this mutation. Considerable evidence supports the proposition that phosphorylation of cardiac sarcomeric proteins is a key modulator of function and may exacerbate the effect of the deletion. In this study we investigate the impact of K210 deletion on phosphorylation propensity of sarcomeric proteins. Analysis of cardiac myofibrils isolated from ΔK210 hearts identified a decrease in phosphorylation of cTnI (46%), cTnT (30%) and MyBP-C (32%) compared with wild-type controls. Interestingly, immunoblot analyses with phospho-specific antibodies show augmented phosphorylation of cTnT-Thr203 (28%) and decreased phosphorylation of cTnI-Ser23/24 (41%) in mutant myocardium. In vitro kinase assays indicate that ΔK210 increases phosphorylation propensity of cTnT-Thr203 three-fold, without changing cTnI-Ser23/24 phosphorylation. Molecular modeling of cTnT-ΔK210 structure reveals changes in the electrostatic environment of cTnT helix (residues 203–224) that lead to a more basic environment around Thr203, which may explain the enhanced PKC-dependent phosphorylation. In addition, yeast two-hybrid assays indicate that cTnT-ΔK210 binds stronger to cTnI compared with cTnT-wt. Collectively, our observations suggest that cardiomyopathy-causing ΔK210 has far-reaching effects influencing cTnI–cTnT binding and posttranslational modifications of key sarcomeric proteins.

Involvement of NADPH oxidase in age-associated cardiac remodeling - Corrected Proof

2010-01-15

Abstract: Increased activation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) and an increase in oxidative stress are both implicated in age-related cardiac remodeling but their precise interrelationship and linkage to underlying molecular and cellular abnormalities remain to be defined. Recent studies indicate that NADPH oxidases are major sources of oxidative stress and are activated by the RAAS. This study investigated the relationship between the NADPH oxidase system, age-related cardiac remodeling and its underlying mechanisms. We studied male Fisher 344 cross Brown Norway rats aged 2 months (young rats), 8 months (young adult rats) or 30 months (old rats). Aging-dependent increases in blood pressure, cardiomyocyte area, coronary artery remodeling and cardiac fibrosis were associated with increased myocardial NADPH oxidase activity attributable to the Nox2 isoform. These changes were accompanied by evidence of local RAAS activation, increased expression of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and TGF-β1, and a significant activation of MMP-2 and MT1-MMP. The changes in old rats were replicated in 8 month old rats that were chronically treated with angiotensin II for 28 days. Increased RAAS activation may drive age-related cardiac remodeling through the activation of Nox2 NADPH oxidase and subsequent increases in MMP activation, fibrosis and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.

Relative importance of funny current in human versus rabbit sinoatrial node - Corrected Proof

Arie O. Verkerk, Ronald Wilders — 2010-01-11

We read with great interest the recent Point/Counterpoint article by Lakatta and DiFrancesco on the relative role of the hyperpolarization-activated “funny current” If vs. that of intracellular Ca2+ cycling in controlling the normal pacemaker cell automaticity . In this article, it is argued by Dr. Lakatta, referring to experimental data from our laboratory , that “the extent to which If becomes activated during diastolic depolarization in primary sinoatrial node cells must be low, in general, but especially in humans.” We would like to comment on the suggestion that the funny current is less important in the human sinoatrial (SA) node than in rabbit.

Derivation and characterization of human fetal MSCs: An alternative cell source for large-scale production of cardioprotective microparticles - Corrected Proof

2010-01-11

Abstract: The therapeutic effects of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) transplantation are increasingly thought to be mediated by MSC secretion. We have previously demonstrated that human ESC-derived MSCs (hESC-MSCs) produce cardioprotective microparticles in pig model of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury. As the safety and availability of clinical grade human ESCs remain a concern, MSCs from fetal tissue sources were evaluated as alternatives. Here we derived five MSC cultures from limb, kidney and liver tissues of three first trimester aborted fetuses and like our previously described hESC-derived MSCs; they were highly expandable and had similar telomerase activities. Each line has the potential to generate at least 1016–19 cells or 107–10 doses of cardioprotective secretion for a pig model of MI/R injury. Unlike previously described fetal MSCs, they did not express pluripotency-associated markers such as Oct4, Nanog or Tra1-60. They displayed a typical MSC surface antigen profile and differentiated into adipocytes, osteocytes and chondrocytes in vitro. Global gene expression analysis by microarray and qRT-PCR revealed a typical MSC gene expression profile that was highly correlated among the five fetal MSC cultures and with that of hESC-MSCs (r2>0.90). Like hESC-MSCs, they produced secretion that was cardioprotective in a mouse model of MI/R injury. HPLC analysis of the secretion revealed the presence of a population of microparticles with a hydrodynamic radius of 50–65 nm. This purified population of microparticles was cardioprotective at ∼1/10 dosage of the crude secretion.

The signalling pathway of CaMKII-mediated apoptosis and necrosis in the ischemia/reperfusion injury - Corrected Proof

2010-01-07

Abstract: Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) plays an important role mediating apoptosis/necrosis during ischemia-reperfusion (IR). We explored the mechanisms of this deleterious effect. Langendorff perfused rat and transgenic mice hearts with CaMKII inhibition targeted to sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR-AIP) were subjected to global IR. The onset of reperfusion increased the phosphorylation of Thr17 site of phospholamban, without changes in total protein, consistent with an increase in CaMKII activity. Instead, there was a proportional decrease in the phosphorylation of Ser2815 site of ryanodine receptors (RyR2) and the amount of RyR2 at the onset of reperfusion, i.e. the ratio Ser2815/RyR2 did not change. Inhibition of the reverse Na+/Ca2+exchanger (NCX) mode (KBR7943) diminished phospholamban phosphorylation, reduced apoptosis/necrosis and enhanced mechanical recovery. CaMKII-inhibition (KN-93), significantly decreased phospholamban phosphorylation, infarct area, lactate dehydrogenase release (LDH) (necrosis), TUNEL positive nuclei, caspase-3 activity, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and Ca2+-induced mitochondrial swelling (apoptosis), and increased contractile recovery when compared with non-treated IR hearts or IR hearts pretreated with the inactive analog, KN-92. Blocking SR Ca2+ loading and release (thapsigargin/dantrolene), mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (ruthenium red/RU360), or mitochondrial permeability transition pore (cyclosporine A), significantly decreased infarct size, LDH release and apoptosis. SR-AIP hearts failed to show an increase in the phosphorylation of Thr17 of phospholamban at the onset of reflow and exhibited a significant decrease in infarct size, apoptosis and necrosis respect to controls. The results reveal an apoptotic-necrotic pathway mediated by CaMKII-dependent phosphorylations at the SR, which involves the reverse NCX mode and the mitochondria as trigger and end effectors, respectively, of the cascade.

Cellular repressor of E1A-stimulated genes inhibits human vascular smooth muscle cell apoptosis via blocking P38/JNK MAP kinase activation - Corrected Proof

2010-01-07

Abstract: Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) apoptosis accelerates atherosclerosis and promotes restenosis following vascular injury. The current study examined the effects of cellular repressor of E1A-stimulated genes (CREG), a novel glycoprotein inhibiting transcription activation, on the regulation of VSMC apoptosis. Serum starvation or treatment of human VSMCs with apoptosis inducers (STS or VP-16) significantly reduced CREG expression and caused caspase-3 activation. CREG downregulation and caspase-3 activation were inversely related, suggesting that reduced CREG expression may contribute to VSMC apoptosis. Both loss-of-function (CREG-DW produced by retroviruses expressing CREG shRNAs) and gain-of-function (CREG-UP produced by retroviral infection with vector pLNCX-CREG) studies were performed to confirm this hypothesis. CREG-DW significantly increased VSMC apoptosis, whereas CREG-UP significantly reduced apoptosis. Moreover, p38 and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinases were significantly upregulated in CREG-DW and significantly reduced in CREG-UP VSMCs. More importantly, CREG-DW-induced VSMC apoptosis was blocked by the p38-specific inhibitor SB203580 or by overexpression of a dominant-negative P38α (p38α AGF). Balloon injury-induced vascular caspase-3 activation was significantly inhibited by treatment with recombinant CREG protein. These results demonstrated for the first time that CREG plays a key role in modulating VSMC apoptosis through the p38 and JNK signal transduction pathways, both in vitro and in situ.